Person.
On July 8, 1497, Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama (c. 1460-1524) set out from Lisbon in command of four ships and 170 men. Following the route sailed by Bartolomeu Dias in 1487, da Gama made landfall on the African coast, having sailed 6,000 miles in open waters, the longest journey made out of sight of land up to that time. They pushed on, arriving in Calicut, India in May 1498, the first European to establish that a route around Africa to India was viable.
After exchanging a trivial bunch of presents - cloaks, hats, brass vessels, a chest if sugar, and a cask of. honey - , his ships were loaded with spices, and he left in August to return to Portugal in January 1499. On the voyage, he had lost half his ships and half his men, but his voyage had proven that trade routes around Africa to India were possible, and Portugal used them to become a major trading, and enslaving, power. He made two subsequent voyages, dying in India if malaria.
Historian Nigel Cliff wrote The Last Crusade, a chronicle of the man, his voyages, and his legacy.
Place.
Calicut, the English name for Kozhikode, was dubbed "the city of spices" in medieval and Renaissance times, making it Vasco da Gama's destination in 1498. It was the capital of an independent kingdom through the Middle Ages
Arab traders first reached Called cut in the 7th century, and they worked to turn the king against the Portuguese when da Gama arrived in 1498. A later Portuguese arrival, Pedro Cabral, established a Portuguese factory there in the early 1500s, but he antagonized the rulers, leading to 70 Portuguese killed. This marked the beginnings of military clashes with the Portuguese over the next couple of decades, followed by Dutch and British occupation.
Historian Nigel Cliff wrote The Last Crusade, a chronicle of the man, his voyages, and his legacy.
Calicut, the English name for Kozhikode, was dubbed "the city of spices" in medieval and Renaissance times, making it Vasco da Gama's destination in 1498. It was the capital of an independent kingdom through the Middle Ages
Arab traders first reached Called cut in the 7th century, and they worked to turn the king against the Portuguese when da Gama arrived in 1498. A later Portuguese arrival, Pedro Cabral, established a Portuguese factory there in the early 1500s, but he antagonized the rulers, leading to 70 Portuguese killed. This marked the beginnings of military clashes with the Portuguese over the next couple of decades, followed by Dutch and British occupation.
Historian Nigel Cliff wrote The Last Crusade, a chronicle of the man, his voyages, and his legacy.
Thing.
Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, known as a peppercorn, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. The fruit is a drupe (stonefruit) which is about 5 mm (0.20 in) in diameter (fresh and fully mature), dark red, and contains a stone which encloses a single pepper side. Peppercorns and the ground pepper derived from them may be described simply as pepper, or more precisely as black pepper (cooked and dried unripe fruit), green pepper (dried unripe fruit), or white pepper (ripe fruit seeds).
(From Wikipedia)
Black pepper originated on the Malabar coast of India and was the chief source of wealth for the kingdom,with it's capital at Calicut. Black pepper was known as the "master spice" and was traded throughout China, southeast Asia, and the Arab world. It was known in Europe as far back as ancient Rome, and throughout ancient and medieval Europe, it was extremely valuable.
Explorer Vasco da Gama established a new route to India by sea, losing half of his fleet and gaining great personal fortune in the process, for black pepper. Historian Nigel Cliff wrote The Last Crusade, a chronicle of the man, his voyages, and his legacy.
Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, known as a peppercorn, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. The fruit is a drupe (stonefruit) which is about 5 mm (0.20 in) in diameter (fresh and fully mature), dark red, and contains a stone which encloses a single pepper side. Peppercorns and the ground pepper derived from them may be described simply as pepper, or more precisely as black pepper (cooked and dried unripe fruit), green pepper (dried unripe fruit), or white pepper (ripe fruit seeds).
(From Wikipedia)
Black pepper originated on the Malabar coast of India and was the chief source of wealth for the kingdom,with it's capital at Calicut. Black pepper was known as the "master spice" and was traded throughout China, southeast Asia, and the Arab world. It was known in Europe as far back as ancient Rome, and throughout ancient and medieval Europe, it was extremely valuable.
Explorer Vasco da Gama established a new route to India by sea, losing half of his fleet and gaining great personal fortune in the process, for black pepper. Historian Nigel Cliff wrote The Last Crusade, a chronicle of the man, his voyages, and his legacy.
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Person.
When Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints founder Joseph Smith died in 1844 without leaving a clearly designated successor, the young Church had a moment of crisis. Brigham Young and other members of the Twelve Apostles jockeyed for power, and the first Mrs. Smith put forward her son (and other Smith wives felt the same about their sons). One man, James Strang, (1813-1856) had proof, he claimed, not only producing a letter from Smith naming him heir, but also claiming to have been ordained by an angel at the exact moment of Smith's death. In 1845, he also discovered the Voree plates, metal plates affirming his succession.
Strang attracted some powerful supporters within the Church, including Smith's brother William, Smith's mother, and the President of the Mormon town of Nauvoo. Soon, up to 12,000 Mormons accepted Strang, and he established Church headquarters in Beaver Island in Michigan, building a town of several hundred, while Strangite churches appeared in other Mormon communities. He began unearthing and translating ancient metal plates and pronouncing revelations to his followers, eventually becoming King Strang.
Some revelations ran counter to Mormon beliefs. Strang rejected the Trinity and the Virgin Birth, claiming Jesus was the natural son of Joseph and Mary, adopted by God. He argued that God was not omnipotent, there was no science and religion conflict, and championed evolution. He predicted a future where religion was treated as science following exact rules as mathematics.
Strang died on July 9, 1856, following a shooting by a couple of excommunicated members. Miles Harvey's book King of Confidence tells the Strang story.
When Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints founder Joseph Smith died in 1844 without leaving a clearly designated successor, the young Church had a moment of crisis. Brigham Young and other members of the Twelve Apostles jockeyed for power, and the first Mrs. Smith put forward her son (and other Smith wives felt the same about their sons). One man, James Strang, (1813-1856) had proof, he claimed, not only producing a letter from Smith naming him heir, but also claiming to have been ordained by an angel at the exact moment of Smith's death. In 1845, he also discovered the Voree plates, metal plates affirming his succession.
Strang attracted some powerful supporters within the Church, including Smith's brother William, Smith's mother, and the President of the Mormon town of Nauvoo. Soon, up to 12,000 Mormons accepted Strang, and he established Church headquarters in Beaver Island in Michigan, building a town of several hundred, while Strangite churches appeared in other Mormon communities. He began unearthing and translating ancient metal plates and pronouncing revelations to his followers, eventually becoming King Strang.
Some revelations ran counter to Mormon beliefs. Strang rejected the Trinity and the Virgin Birth, claiming Jesus was the natural son of Joseph and Mary, adopted by God. He argued that God was not omnipotent, there was no science and religion conflict, and championed evolution. He predicted a future where religion was treated as science following exact rules as mathematics.
Strang died on July 9, 1856, following a shooting by a couple of excommunicated members. Miles Harvey's book King of Confidence tells the Strang story.
Place.
Beaver Island Michigan is located between the upper and lower peninsulas. James Strang moved his followers there from Wisconsin in 1848 and made it the seat of his church. At the time, it was mostly inhabited by Irish immigrants, but the Strangites soon took over, and Strang imposed authoritarian rule. After Strang's assassination, mobs from neighboring towns stormed the island, displacing the Strangites and destroying the church property.
Beaver Island Michigan is located between the upper and lower peninsulas. James Strang moved his followers there from Wisconsin in 1848 and made it the seat of his church. At the time, it was mostly inhabited by Irish immigrants, but the Strangites soon took over, and Strang imposed authoritarian rule. After Strang's assassination, mobs from neighboring towns stormed the island, displacing the Strangites and destroying the church property.
Thing.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) still exists today in Voree Wisconsin, following the doctrine of James Strang and recognizing him as the legitimate successor to founding prophet Joseph Smith. There are less than 300 members.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) still exists today in Voree Wisconsin, following the doctrine of James Strang and recognizing him as the legitimate successor to founding prophet Joseph Smith. There are less than 300 members.
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Person.
Jury selection began for what the press called the Scopes Monkey Trial on July 10, 1925 in Dayton Tennessee.
During the 1920s, the US was in a culture war, modern versus traditional. Women were challenging the status quo, there were race riots and a reborn KKK, the temperance movement had successfully outlawed alcohol, and jazz, blues, and movies poked the boundaries of moral decency. There was a conflict between modern science and traditional Christian fundamentalism.
Leading figures in the small town of Dayton Tennessee decided to use some free publicity to put their town on the map and increase business. Tennessee had passed the Butler Act, forbidding the teaching of evolution in Tennessee schools. The young American Civil Liberties Union placed an ad in newspapers searching for a volunteer to break the law in order to challenge its constitutionality in court.
The city leaders approached John T. Scopes (1900-1970), football coach and sometime physics and math teacher. He reluctantly agreed to be the defendant, although he later said that he had never taught evolution, and that his students had been coached to lie in the stand. You know the rest. The "Trial of the Century" took place, and Scopes was found guilty and fined $100 ($1500 in 2022 $). Scopes left teaching and Tennessee and made an unsuccessful bid for a congressional seat in his home state of Kentucky as a Socialist. He then became an oil industry geologist in Texas and Louisiana. He intensely disliked the media attention and sought to avoid it, but he did appear on To Tell the Truth in 1960.
Jury selection began for what the press called the Scopes Monkey Trial on July 10, 1925 in Dayton Tennessee.
During the 1920s, the US was in a culture war, modern versus traditional. Women were challenging the status quo, there were race riots and a reborn KKK, the temperance movement had successfully outlawed alcohol, and jazz, blues, and movies poked the boundaries of moral decency. There was a conflict between modern science and traditional Christian fundamentalism.
Leading figures in the small town of Dayton Tennessee decided to use some free publicity to put their town on the map and increase business. Tennessee had passed the Butler Act, forbidding the teaching of evolution in Tennessee schools. The young American Civil Liberties Union placed an ad in newspapers searching for a volunteer to break the law in order to challenge its constitutionality in court.
The city leaders approached John T. Scopes (1900-1970), football coach and sometime physics and math teacher. He reluctantly agreed to be the defendant, although he later said that he had never taught evolution, and that his students had been coached to lie in the stand. You know the rest. The "Trial of the Century" took place, and Scopes was found guilty and fined $100 ($1500 in 2022 $). Scopes left teaching and Tennessee and made an unsuccessful bid for a congressional seat in his home state of Kentucky as a Socialist. He then became an oil industry geologist in Texas and Louisiana. He intensely disliked the media attention and sought to avoid it, but he did appear on To Tell the Truth in 1960.
Place.
Jury selection began for what the press called the Scopes Monkey Trial on July 10, 1925 in Dayton Tennessee.
Dayton was founded after the Civil War, with a population of 200 in 1880. It then had a brief prosperous moment with the advent of the railroad, and the Dayton Coal and Iron Company flourished until 1913. By 1925, the population had dropped from 3,000 to 1,800.
Then, one day, civic leaders enjoying the soda fountain at Robinson's Drugstore had an idea. They would have a teacher arrested for teaching evolution in violation of a new state law called the Butler Act. That would draw visitors, and their money, to town. For two weeks in July, the town hosted hot dog and lemonade vendors, souvenir hawkers, trained monkey and chimp acts, advocates for and against the teaching of evolution, and hundreds of radio and newspaper reporters. The courthouse had seating for 700, but at least 1,000 crowded in daily. Thousands of miles of telegraph lines were strung so that 22 telegraphers could send out about 165,000 words per day.
Ultimately, the trial brought little lasting fortune and growth to Dayton, but the Scopes Festival is still held annually in July
Read Summer For the Gods by Edward Larson for more
Jury selection began for what the press called the Scopes Monkey Trial on July 10, 1925 in Dayton Tennessee.
Dayton was founded after the Civil War, with a population of 200 in 1880. It then had a brief prosperous moment with the advent of the railroad, and the Dayton Coal and Iron Company flourished until 1913. By 1925, the population had dropped from 3,000 to 1,800.
Then, one day, civic leaders enjoying the soda fountain at Robinson's Drugstore had an idea. They would have a teacher arrested for teaching evolution in violation of a new state law called the Butler Act. That would draw visitors, and their money, to town. For two weeks in July, the town hosted hot dog and lemonade vendors, souvenir hawkers, trained monkey and chimp acts, advocates for and against the teaching of evolution, and hundreds of radio and newspaper reporters. The courthouse had seating for 700, but at least 1,000 crowded in daily. Thousands of miles of telegraph lines were strung so that 22 telegraphers could send out about 165,000 words per day.
Ultimately, the trial brought little lasting fortune and growth to Dayton, but the Scopes Festival is still held annually in July
Read Summer For the Gods by Edward Larson for more
Things.
Jury selection began for what the press called the Scopes Monkey Trial on July 10, 1925 in Dayton Tennessee.
The trial was a boon for political cartoonists, providing weeks of fodder.
Jury selection began for what the press called the Scopes Monkey Trial on July 10, 1925 in Dayton Tennessee.
The trial was a boon for political cartoonists, providing weeks of fodder.
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Persons.
On July 11, 1804, Alexander Hamilton, founding father and first Secretary of the Treasury, despite his own often-repeated admonitions, did, in fact, throw away his shot in a duel with Vice-President Aaron Burr, resulting in his death.
While there were years of enmity between the two men, the duel was precipitated by a letter published by The Albany Register in April 1804. The letter was from Charles Cooper to Hamilton's father-in-law, Philip Schuyler. In February, Cooper has attended a dinner party, along with Hamilton. The topic of Burr and his campaign for New York governor came up, and Cooper related details to Schuyler. Hamilton had apparently called Burr "dangerous," and he wrote that he could share an even more "despicable opinion" that Hamilton had of Burr.
Burr did not read the letter until after he lost the election, and he immediately sent a letter to Hamilton demanding an "unqualified acknowledgement or denial of the use" of the phrase "more despicable." Hamilton responded that he could not be held responsible for Cooper's interpretation and that he had no memory of what was said. Burr was unsatisfied and challenged Hamilton to a duel
On July 10, the men, their seconds, and a doctor met near Weehawken New Jersey, near where Hamilton's son Philip had died in a duel in 1801. First-hand accounts vary, because the seconds turned their backs to the action to ensure plausible deniability. (Care was taken to make sure participants did not see possibly incriminating acts, as dueling was outlawed in many jurisdictions.)
In any case, Hamilton's shot was high and behind Burr, hitting a tree. Often, duelists only discharged their weapons with no intent to kill, and the shot was enough to satisfy honor, allowing the men to walk away uninjured. After Hamilton's shot, Burr could have thrown away his shot as well. Instead, he aimed and fired, delivering the fatal shot.
Read Duel by Thomas Fleming.
On July 11, 1804, Alexander Hamilton, founding father and first Secretary of the Treasury, despite his own often-repeated admonitions, did, in fact, throw away his shot in a duel with Vice-President Aaron Burr, resulting in his death.
While there were years of enmity between the two men, the duel was precipitated by a letter published by The Albany Register in April 1804. The letter was from Charles Cooper to Hamilton's father-in-law, Philip Schuyler. In February, Cooper has attended a dinner party, along with Hamilton. The topic of Burr and his campaign for New York governor came up, and Cooper related details to Schuyler. Hamilton had apparently called Burr "dangerous," and he wrote that he could share an even more "despicable opinion" that Hamilton had of Burr.
Burr did not read the letter until after he lost the election, and he immediately sent a letter to Hamilton demanding an "unqualified acknowledgement or denial of the use" of the phrase "more despicable." Hamilton responded that he could not be held responsible for Cooper's interpretation and that he had no memory of what was said. Burr was unsatisfied and challenged Hamilton to a duel
On July 10, the men, their seconds, and a doctor met near Weehawken New Jersey, near where Hamilton's son Philip had died in a duel in 1801. First-hand accounts vary, because the seconds turned their backs to the action to ensure plausible deniability. (Care was taken to make sure participants did not see possibly incriminating acts, as dueling was outlawed in many jurisdictions.)
In any case, Hamilton's shot was high and behind Burr, hitting a tree. Often, duelists only discharged their weapons with no intent to kill, and the shot was enough to satisfy honor, allowing the men to walk away uninjured. After Hamilton's shot, Burr could have thrown away his shot as well. Instead, he aimed and fired, delivering the fatal shot.
Read Duel by Thomas Fleming.
Place.
On July 11, 1804, Alexander Hamilton, founding father and first Secretary of the Treasury, despite his own often-repeated admonitions, did, in fact, throw away his shot in a duel with Vice-President Aaron Burr, resulting in his death.
After the challenge was made and accepted, the participants chose Weehawken Heights, New Jersey as the venue. Just across the Hudson River from New York, this site was popular with duelists because, as states - including New York - were outlawing dueling by 1804, New Jersey seemed indifferent to dueling. Between 1700 and 1845, there were 18 known duels on this site, including the 1801 duel that led to the death of Hamilton's son Philip.
On July 11, 1804, Alexander Hamilton, founding father and first Secretary of the Treasury, despite his own often-repeated admonitions, did, in fact, throw away his shot in a duel with Vice-President Aaron Burr, resulting in his death.
After the challenge was made and accepted, the participants chose Weehawken Heights, New Jersey as the venue. Just across the Hudson River from New York, this site was popular with duelists because, as states - including New York - were outlawing dueling by 1804, New Jersey seemed indifferent to dueling. Between 1700 and 1845, there were 18 known duels on this site, including the 1801 duel that led to the death of Hamilton's son Philip.
Thing.
On July 11, 1804, Alexander Hamilton, founding father and first Secretary of the Treasury, despite his own often-repeated admonitions, did, in fact, throw away his shot in a duel with Vice-President Aaron Burr, resulting in his death.
The idea of one on one combat, or dueling, to resolve an insult to one's honor has been around for centuries, and most cultures developed complex rules for dueling, sometimes called the code duello.
Lin-Manuel Miranda wrote the code into his "Hamilton" in the song "10 Duel Commandments." Generally, by 1804, many duelists, but definitely not all, had adopted the "first blood rule," the idea that honor has been restored when of the duelists is injured, so they didn't necessarily go for the kill. In some cases with pistols, both men would intentionally miss. The idea was that one had shown his bravery by showing up and being willing to be shot at. Then, the men could be satisfied, and neither does.
According to people around Hamilton and a letter written before the duel, Hamilton had every intention of wasting his first shot, perhaps anticipating that Burr would do the same.
On July 11, 1804, Alexander Hamilton, founding father and first Secretary of the Treasury, despite his own often-repeated admonitions, did, in fact, throw away his shot in a duel with Vice-President Aaron Burr, resulting in his death.
The idea of one on one combat, or dueling, to resolve an insult to one's honor has been around for centuries, and most cultures developed complex rules for dueling, sometimes called the code duello.
Lin-Manuel Miranda wrote the code into his "Hamilton" in the song "10 Duel Commandments." Generally, by 1804, many duelists, but definitely not all, had adopted the "first blood rule," the idea that honor has been restored when of the duelists is injured, so they didn't necessarily go for the kill. In some cases with pistols, both men would intentionally miss. The idea was that one had shown his bravery by showing up and being willing to be shot at. Then, the men could be satisfied, and neither does.
According to people around Hamilton and a letter written before the duel, Hamilton had every intention of wasting his first shot, perhaps anticipating that Burr would do the same.
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Persons.
When Florida was first occupied by Native Americans 12,000 years ago or so, water was life. As Florida's landscape changed, its natural springs were shaped, and indigenous villages sprang up alongside them. Florida's springs and rivers provided water and food, and they also became known as places of healing and even ritual.
As the Spanish, British, and then Americans moved into Florida, they too discovered the rejuvenating and healing properties of Florida's natural springs. Before the Civil War, explorers wrote about the raw, undeveloped, and unexplored Florida. During Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, canny entrepreneurs became rich building resorts and spas for adventurous Yankees, and the railroads and steamboat lines that brought them. The visitors wrote letters and books about their experiences, drawing more tourists.
Rufus King Sewall and John Lee Williams were two of the antebellum visitors who wrote travel guides touting Florida's Healing Waters. Sewall published Sketches of St. Augustine in 1848. He had moved to St. Augustine from New England in 1845, he promoted St. Augustine as the ideal place for recuperation. The climate, atmosphere, and mineral waters were "medicinal" and exhilarating.
Williams' The Territory of Florida also described St. Augustine as the ideal place for invalids and that sea bathing was restorative.
Noted author and philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson made his first trip to St. Augustine in 1827, before steamboat travel and a real hotel. He suffered from tuberculosis, joint stiffness, and a pleurisy-like condition at the time, but Florida totally restored him and made a new man, he believed.
Rick Kilby 's book Florida's Healing Waters is a beautifully illustrated and well-written account of this major part of Florida's development.
When Florida was first occupied by Native Americans 12,000 years ago or so, water was life. As Florida's landscape changed, its natural springs were shaped, and indigenous villages sprang up alongside them. Florida's springs and rivers provided water and food, and they also became known as places of healing and even ritual.
As the Spanish, British, and then Americans moved into Florida, they too discovered the rejuvenating and healing properties of Florida's natural springs. Before the Civil War, explorers wrote about the raw, undeveloped, and unexplored Florida. During Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, canny entrepreneurs became rich building resorts and spas for adventurous Yankees, and the railroads and steamboat lines that brought them. The visitors wrote letters and books about their experiences, drawing more tourists.
Rufus King Sewall and John Lee Williams were two of the antebellum visitors who wrote travel guides touting Florida's Healing Waters. Sewall published Sketches of St. Augustine in 1848. He had moved to St. Augustine from New England in 1845, he promoted St. Augustine as the ideal place for recuperation. The climate, atmosphere, and mineral waters were "medicinal" and exhilarating.
Williams' The Territory of Florida also described St. Augustine as the ideal place for invalids and that sea bathing was restorative.
Noted author and philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson made his first trip to St. Augustine in 1827, before steamboat travel and a real hotel. He suffered from tuberculosis, joint stiffness, and a pleurisy-like condition at the time, but Florida totally restored him and made a new man, he believed.
Rick Kilby 's book Florida's Healing Waters is a beautifully illustrated and well-written account of this major part of Florida's development.
Place.
Green Cove Springs, on the St. John's River near Jacksonville, was one of the many spa destinations in Florida in the Gilded Age. Originally developed by David Palmer and Darius Ferris beginning in 1834, it really took off following the Civil War. Soon, the modest accomodations couldn't accommodate the flood of invalid northerners. In 1871, a new hotel, the Clarendon, promised modern luxuries like spring beds, hair mattresses, a bowling alley, and a billiard room. Guests could have healing hot or cold sulfur-water baths within the hotel. Sulfur water was touted as beneficial to drink, and Green Cove Springs water was bottled and shipped throughout the country. The Clarendon was the largest hotel in the St. Johns. Soon visitors and publicists were calling it the "Saratoga of the South," after the famous resort town of Saratoga New York.
Green Cove Springs, on the St. John's River near Jacksonville, was one of the many spa destinations in Florida in the Gilded Age. Originally developed by David Palmer and Darius Ferris beginning in 1834, it really took off following the Civil War. Soon, the modest accomodations couldn't accommodate the flood of invalid northerners. In 1871, a new hotel, the Clarendon, promised modern luxuries like spring beds, hair mattresses, a bowling alley, and a billiard room. Guests could have healing hot or cold sulfur-water baths within the hotel. Sulfur water was touted as beneficial to drink, and Green Cove Springs water was bottled and shipped throughout the country. The Clarendon was the largest hotel in the St. Johns. Soon visitors and publicists were calling it the "Saratoga of the South," after the famous resort town of Saratoga New York.
Thing.
While almost all the hotels, spas, and resorts built around Florida's springs, springs till exist. Many are part of state parks or are otherwise accessible to the public for swimming, kayaking, and other activities. Others are on private property.
As more and more people move to Florida and development threatens more of the state's natural beauty, there are organizations like this one with the mission of protecting natural springs. (Disclaimer: This is not an endorsement of the organization. I don't have firsthand knowledge.)
While almost all the hotels, spas, and resorts built around Florida's springs, springs till exist. Many are part of state parks or are otherwise accessible to the public for swimming, kayaking, and other activities. Others are on private property.
As more and more people move to Florida and development threatens more of the state's natural beauty, there are organizations like this one with the mission of protecting natural springs. (Disclaimer: This is not an endorsement of the organization. I don't have firsthand knowledge.)
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Person.
Most people know that the "father of the atomic bomb" was J. Robert Oppenheimer, but the Manhattan Project that led to its creation was under the charge of Lieutenant General Leslie Groves who died on July 13, 1970.
Born in 1896, the son of an Army chaplain, he spent his childhood at various bases. In 1918, he graduated fourth in his class at West Point and was commissioned into the US Army Corps of Engineers. He developed a reputation as a doer and a task driver, and he moved up the ranks. In 1940, he was put in charge of the construction of the Pentagon.
In September 1942, he was put in charge of the top secret Manhattan Project. Involved in severy step, he made final decisions about the work sites ( Oak Ridge, Hanford, Chicago, Los Alamos), their construction, acquired raw materials, managed the scientists and workers, directed military intelligence on the Germans' nuclear program, was in charge of Manhattan Project security, and helped the targets of the US atomic bombs.
He remained in charge until 1947 when the Atomic Energy Commission took over. In 1948, Army Chief of Staff Dwight Eisenhower made it known to Groves that he would never be Chief Engineer because of repeated complaints about his rudeness, arrogance, insensitivity, and rule-bending, so he left the Army for the private sector.
Countdown 1945 is the story of the 116 days leading to the bombing of Hiroshima. It's a short, fast-paced, informative read.
Most people know that the "father of the atomic bomb" was J. Robert Oppenheimer, but the Manhattan Project that led to its creation was under the charge of Lieutenant General Leslie Groves who died on July 13, 1970.
Born in 1896, the son of an Army chaplain, he spent his childhood at various bases. In 1918, he graduated fourth in his class at West Point and was commissioned into the US Army Corps of Engineers. He developed a reputation as a doer and a task driver, and he moved up the ranks. In 1940, he was put in charge of the construction of the Pentagon.
In September 1942, he was put in charge of the top secret Manhattan Project. Involved in severy step, he made final decisions about the work sites ( Oak Ridge, Hanford, Chicago, Los Alamos), their construction, acquired raw materials, managed the scientists and workers, directed military intelligence on the Germans' nuclear program, was in charge of Manhattan Project security, and helped the targets of the US atomic bombs.
He remained in charge until 1947 when the Atomic Energy Commission took over. In 1948, Army Chief of Staff Dwight Eisenhower made it known to Groves that he would never be Chief Engineer because of repeated complaints about his rudeness, arrogance, insensitivity, and rule-bending, so he left the Army for the private sector.
Countdown 1945 is the story of the 116 days leading to the bombing of Hiroshima. It's a short, fast-paced, informative read.
Places.
Lieutenant General Leslie Groves, Army engineer in charge of the Manhattan Project, eventually oversaw dozens of locations in the US and Canada (with uranium coming from the Congo) and over 130,000 people. While many of the scientists were in Los Alamos New Mexico under the supervision of Robert J. Oppenheimer, much of the preliminary work was done at the University of Chicago and in Manhattan. Processing of the uranium into plutonium took place in Hanford Washington, and an entire top-secret city was built at Oak Ridge Tennessee that grew from nothing to a population of 75,000 in 2 1/2 years.
Groves died on July 13, 1970.
Lieutenant General Leslie Groves, Army engineer in charge of the Manhattan Project, eventually oversaw dozens of locations in the US and Canada (with uranium coming from the Congo) and over 130,000 people. While many of the scientists were in Los Alamos New Mexico under the supervision of Robert J. Oppenheimer, much of the preliminary work was done at the University of Chicago and in Manhattan. Processing of the uranium into plutonium took place in Hanford Washington, and an entire top-secret city was built at Oak Ridge Tennessee that grew from nothing to a population of 75,000 in 2 1/2 years.
Groves died on July 13, 1970.
Thing.
Lieutenant General Leslie Groves, Army engineer in charge of the Manhattan Project died on July 13, 1970.
The Manhattan Project got its start on August 2, 1939 when physicist Albert Einstein signed a letter to President Roosevelt stating that he had heard from various sources that Germany was working on the idea of splitting atoms to produce energy that may be harnessed and used as a weapon. He urged that the President make it a priority to determine how far the Germans had gotten and suggested that the U.S. might consider the idea.
FDR took the letter seriously and the seeds of the Manhattan Project had been sown.
Einstein did not write the letter; it was written by Hungarian scientists that he was acquainted with, but they knew his name carried weight. Einstein later said, after the atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, that the letter was perhaps his greatest regret. He said if he had known for certain that Germany's work wouldn't have yielded a weapon, he wouldn't have lifted a finger.
Lieutenant General Leslie Groves, Army engineer in charge of the Manhattan Project died on July 13, 1970.
The Manhattan Project got its start on August 2, 1939 when physicist Albert Einstein signed a letter to President Roosevelt stating that he had heard from various sources that Germany was working on the idea of splitting atoms to produce energy that may be harnessed and used as a weapon. He urged that the President make it a priority to determine how far the Germans had gotten and suggested that the U.S. might consider the idea.
FDR took the letter seriously and the seeds of the Manhattan Project had been sown.
Einstein did not write the letter; it was written by Hungarian scientists that he was acquainted with, but they knew his name carried weight. Einstein later said, after the atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, that the letter was perhaps his greatest regret. He said if he had known for certain that Germany's work wouldn't have yielded a weapon, he wouldn't have lifted a finger.
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Person.
July 14 is Bastille Day in France, a national holiday commemorating the start of the French Revolution, when a mob stormed the Bastille prison-armory fueled by the rumors that King Louis XVI was bringing troops into the city to crack down on demonstrators and that numerous political dissidents were being housed in the Bastille.
In 1859, Charles Dickens wrote A Tale Of Two Cities, his historical fiction novel about the Revolution, and my favorite Dickens novel. OK, confession- the only Dickens novel I've ever finished. Still my favorite.
The main antagonist of the story is Madame Therese Defarge, a Parisian shopkeeper's wife who stokes the fires of revolution and leads the mob against the "aristos," often portrayed in movie versions as a cackling crazy woman knitting in the front row of spectators as the guillotine removed their heads.
Women played important roles in various stages of the French Revolution(s), and some historians argue that Dickens based Defarge on Anne-Josephe Theroigne de Mericourt (1762-1817). Born in what is now Belgium, she was a singer, orator and organizer in the Revolution, attending National Assembly meetings, founding political action clubs, making speeches, and working to spread revolution in the Austrian Low Countries (now Belgium, Luxembourg).
The Parisian royalist press portrayed her as a "patriots' whore" and "female war chief," a vicious sex-crazed agitator who led the attack on the Bastille and the Women's March in Versailles (She wasn't even present at either.)
In 1790, she was arrested, interrogated, and tortured by Austrian authorizes until 1792, resulting in many physical and mental health issues. She returned to France and aligned with the Girondin faction, less radical than the Jacobins. In 1794, she was certified insane and spent the rest of her life in asylums.
July 14 is Bastille Day in France, a national holiday commemorating the start of the French Revolution, when a mob stormed the Bastille prison-armory fueled by the rumors that King Louis XVI was bringing troops into the city to crack down on demonstrators and that numerous political dissidents were being housed in the Bastille.
In 1859, Charles Dickens wrote A Tale Of Two Cities, his historical fiction novel about the Revolution, and my favorite Dickens novel. OK, confession- the only Dickens novel I've ever finished. Still my favorite.
The main antagonist of the story is Madame Therese Defarge, a Parisian shopkeeper's wife who stokes the fires of revolution and leads the mob against the "aristos," often portrayed in movie versions as a cackling crazy woman knitting in the front row of spectators as the guillotine removed their heads.
Women played important roles in various stages of the French Revolution(s), and some historians argue that Dickens based Defarge on Anne-Josephe Theroigne de Mericourt (1762-1817). Born in what is now Belgium, she was a singer, orator and organizer in the Revolution, attending National Assembly meetings, founding political action clubs, making speeches, and working to spread revolution in the Austrian Low Countries (now Belgium, Luxembourg).
The Parisian royalist press portrayed her as a "patriots' whore" and "female war chief," a vicious sex-crazed agitator who led the attack on the Bastille and the Women's March in Versailles (She wasn't even present at either.)
In 1790, she was arrested, interrogated, and tortured by Austrian authorizes until 1792, resulting in many physical and mental health issues. She returned to France and aligned with the Girondin faction, less radical than the Jacobins. In 1794, she was certified insane and spent the rest of her life in asylums.
Place.
July 14 is Bastille Day in France, a national holiday commemorating the start of the French Revolution, when a mob stormed the Bastille prison-armory fueled by the rumors that King Louis XVI was bringing troops into the city to crack down on demonstrators and that numerous political dissidents were being housed in the Bastille.
July 14 is Bastille Day in France, a national holiday commemorating the start of the French Revolution, when a mob stormed the Bastille prison-armory fueled by the rumors that King Louis XVI was bringing troops into the city to crack down on demonstrators and that numerous political dissidents were being housed in the Bastille.
In 1859, Charles Dickens wrote A Tale Of Two Cities, his historical fiction novel about the Revolution, and my favorite Dickens novel. OK, confession- the only Dickens novel I've ever finished. Still my favorite.
The Place de la Concorde, completed in 1772, is the largest of the major public squares in Paris. In October 1792, it was first used as the site of the first executions by guillotine, when two thieves of royal crown diamonds were beheaded. The guillotine returned to the Place de la Concorde in May 1793. Over the next 13 months, 1,119 people were executed there, including Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, Charlotte Corday, Antoine Lavoisier, Georges Danton, and Maximilien Robespierre.
Thing.
July 14 is Bastille Day in France, a national holiday commemorating the start of the French Revolution, when a mob stormed the Bastille prison-armory fueled by the rumors that King Louis XVI was bringing troops into the city to crack down on demonstrators and that numerous political dissidents were being housed in the Bastille.
In 1859, Charles Dickens wrote A Tale Of Two Cities, his historical fiction novel about the Revolution, and my favorite Dickens novel. OK, confession- the only Dickens novel I've ever finished. Still my favorite.
Dr. Joseph-Ignace Guillotine did not invent the guillotine. In fact, he opposed the death penalty. In October 1789, he proposed that a new, more humane method of execution be devised, inspired by Enlightenment ideas of human rights. The device was actually invented by Antoine Louis, a physician, and Tobias Schmidt, an engineer. It was actually called a "louisette" for a time.
During the Reign of Terror, the guillotine was used to execute some 17,000 people. It continued to be the official method of execution after the Revolution. The last public execution by guillotine was of Eugen Weidmann, convicted of six murders, in 1939. (It was also used for political executions in Nazi Germany.) The last execution by guillotine in France was of murderer Hamida Djandoubi in 1977. France abolished the death penalty in 1981.
July 14 is Bastille Day in France, a national holiday commemorating the start of the French Revolution, when a mob stormed the Bastille prison-armory fueled by the rumors that King Louis XVI was bringing troops into the city to crack down on demonstrators and that numerous political dissidents were being housed in the Bastille.
In 1859, Charles Dickens wrote A Tale Of Two Cities, his historical fiction novel about the Revolution, and my favorite Dickens novel. OK, confession- the only Dickens novel I've ever finished. Still my favorite.
Dr. Joseph-Ignace Guillotine did not invent the guillotine. In fact, he opposed the death penalty. In October 1789, he proposed that a new, more humane method of execution be devised, inspired by Enlightenment ideas of human rights. The device was actually invented by Antoine Louis, a physician, and Tobias Schmidt, an engineer. It was actually called a "louisette" for a time.
During the Reign of Terror, the guillotine was used to execute some 17,000 people. It continued to be the official method of execution after the Revolution. The last public execution by guillotine was of Eugen Weidmann, convicted of six murders, in 1939. (It was also used for political executions in Nazi Germany.) The last execution by guillotine in France was of murderer Hamida Djandoubi in 1977. France abolished the death penalty in 1981.
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Person.
Juan Ponce de Leon (1474-1521) died in Cuba on July 15. Of noble Spanish birth, he served in the military from a young age and first came to the Americas on Columbus' second voyage in 1493.
After crushing a Taino rebellion in Hispaniola, he was appointed Governor of Puerto Rico until a dispute with Diego Columbus led to his removal. In 1513, he led the first Spanish expedition to La Florida, as he named it, landing somewhere in the east coast, then sailing south to the Keys and around the Gulf Coast, possibly as far as the Apalachee Bay.
There is NO contemporary evidence whatsoever that exists that mentions a Fountain of Youth. Historians almost unanimously agree that story was added later, after Ponce de Leon's death. The first reference occurs in 1535.
Upon making landfall in Florida, the Spanish met with native Calusa. The Calusa dominated the southern half of Florida. At first contact, the Calusa seemed interested in trade, but relations turned hostile, and the Spanish fled. In 1521, Ponce de Leon organized a colonizing expedition of 200 men, livestock, and supplies. The expedition landed in southwest Florida, possibly at Charlotte Harbor, where the Calusa attacked. Ponce de Leon was wounded in the attack and died shortly after returning to Cuba
Rick Kilby's book, Finding the Fountain of Youth, relates the story of the myth, how it started and how canny promoters and developers have used it for nearly two centuries to draw people to Florida. Every page has wonderful pictures of postcards, posters, and other ephemera used to promote the idea of Florida as a Fountain of Youth.
Juan Ponce de Leon (1474-1521) died in Cuba on July 15. Of noble Spanish birth, he served in the military from a young age and first came to the Americas on Columbus' second voyage in 1493.
After crushing a Taino rebellion in Hispaniola, he was appointed Governor of Puerto Rico until a dispute with Diego Columbus led to his removal. In 1513, he led the first Spanish expedition to La Florida, as he named it, landing somewhere in the east coast, then sailing south to the Keys and around the Gulf Coast, possibly as far as the Apalachee Bay.
There is NO contemporary evidence whatsoever that exists that mentions a Fountain of Youth. Historians almost unanimously agree that story was added later, after Ponce de Leon's death. The first reference occurs in 1535.
Upon making landfall in Florida, the Spanish met with native Calusa. The Calusa dominated the southern half of Florida. At first contact, the Calusa seemed interested in trade, but relations turned hostile, and the Spanish fled. In 1521, Ponce de Leon organized a colonizing expedition of 200 men, livestock, and supplies. The expedition landed in southwest Florida, possibly at Charlotte Harbor, where the Calusa attacked. Ponce de Leon was wounded in the attack and died shortly after returning to Cuba
Rick Kilby's book, Finding the Fountain of Youth, relates the story of the myth, how it started and how canny promoters and developers have used it for nearly two centuries to draw people to Florida. Every page has wonderful pictures of postcards, posters, and other ephemera used to promote the idea of Florida as a Fountain of Youth.
Place.
Since the early 1800s tourists, and more importantly their dollars, have been drawn to beautiful St. Augustine Florida to see the oldest this and that, only to find, let's say some exaggeration here and there.
The Fountain of Youth Archaeological Park is a 15 acre privately owned attraction, opened since the 1860s in one form or another and owned by one individual or another. It claims to be the site of Ponce de Leon's first landing in Florida, but there is no evidence of that. Tour guides will show you the supposed landing site, an Indian village site, and you will end up at a well claimed to be the fabled Fountain of Youth. You even get to taste the water.
Since the early 1800s tourists, and more importantly their dollars, have been drawn to beautiful St. Augustine Florida to see the oldest this and that, only to find, let's say some exaggeration here and there.
The Fountain of Youth Archaeological Park is a 15 acre privately owned attraction, opened since the 1860s in one form or another and owned by one individual or another. It claims to be the site of Ponce de Leon's first landing in Florida, but there is no evidence of that. Tour guides will show you the supposed landing site, an Indian village site, and you will end up at a well claimed to be the fabled Fountain of Youth. You even get to taste the water.
Thing.
Juan Ponce de Leon, who died on July 15, 1521, served as the first Spanish governor of Puerto Rico, named Florida, and discovered the Gulf Stream. However, he has not escaped the politically correct taint of colonizer and invader. In January 2022, a group toppled his statue in San Juan in protest of both his Spanish conquistador legacy and the San Juan visit of Spanish King Felipe VI.
Juan Ponce de Leon, who died on July 15, 1521, served as the first Spanish governor of Puerto Rico, named Florida, and discovered the Gulf Stream. However, he has not escaped the politically correct taint of colonizer and invader. In January 2022, a group toppled his statue in San Juan in protest of both his Spanish conquistador legacy and the San Juan visit of Spanish King Felipe VI.
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